The Evolution of Medieval Church Structure
Adam Miller
HP-218
2/26/02
Medieval Churches in Europe
Many have seen the beautiful churches of medieval Europe; in fact most many of these churches are still in use today. The architecture of these buildings can usually be characterized by their function and meaning along with the time period in which they were built. Early Roman churches seem relatively simple, while those that were built during Gothic times are magnificent and intricate. Though the church’s constructions seem vastly different, churches built in gothic times are quite similar to earlier churches. Through simple alterations in design, early Christian basilicas and tombs evolved to be glorious gothic cathedrals.
Christian needs during the years soon after the edict of Milan were quite simple and well defined. A building was needed in which the people could worship that also symbolized the elegance of heaven. It had to be large enough to accommodate the Christians community along with symbolizing both the house and tomb of the Lord. The Christians consciously turned away from the styles associated with pagan temples. They found the basilica to well suit their needs. Basilicas were originally buildings suited for public gatherings. They were long, rectangular, and were built with wooden roofs. At one end of the basilica was the apse, or rounded end where the emperor or other important person or object could sit. The Christians adapted the apse to accommodate their altar. Often, the buildings were built with a clearstory in order to allow light to shine in. The longitudinal structure of these buildings proved to be superb for the Christian congregations, since the Christian church ceremonies are processional. This longitudinal structure also emphasized the altar at the end of the building. Krauthiemer states that it was certain that the church would develop in the basilica due to its sole purpose as a meeting hall. At this time period in history, the Christian basilica was one of several types of basilicas including the funeral basilica and the Imperial audience hall. By 300 A.D. the oblong plan, longitudinal axis, timber roof, and vaulting were seen regularly throughout Christian architecture (Krautheimer, 21). The church of St. Paul is an early example of a Christian basilica. Though it has been heavily remodeled, drawings give us a good idea of how the church appeared after it was completed.
Christian religion not only focused on worshiping the Lord, but also worshiping saints and martyrs. Christians traveled to visit tombs or even relics of famous martyrs and saints. This required a building with a central focus on the tomb or relic to showcase these important items. The longitudinal nature of basilicas did not give this central focus. As a result, central planned churches called martyrias were created. Eventually the functionality of both martyrias and basilicas was combined to form one building.
When St. Lawrence was martyred in 258, he was buried in a cemetery. In the fourth century, the community built an underground martyrium and funeral basilica at the site of his grave. This new building, called a mausoleum, was well suited for the celebration of mass and the visitation of relics. The building combined the longitudinal nature of a basilica, while also directing the focus toward the altar and tomb of St. Lawrence. Mausoleums were milestones in Christian architecture. They were the first buildings to double as basilicas and tombs.
Mausoleums were usually square, polygonal, or circular in design, along with featuring a dome that symbolized heaven. The design aspects of mausoleums are seen throughout medieval times. Stokstad says, San Lorenzo Fuori le Mura, the funeral basilica containing St. Lawrence’s tomb, contained the first ambulatory, or passage around the altar, in order to display relics. The side aisles of the building were connected to the ambulatory in order to permit passage around the church without disturbing church services while also protecting the altar. A stairway led down to the crypt where St. Lawrence’s tomb was displayed (Stokstad, 27).
One of the most important developments in medieval church architecture came from the mausoleum intended for the emperor Constantine. Stokstad states that his tomb was at first surrounded by empty tombs symbolizing the 12 apostles, and then in 356 A.D. the apostle’s relics were actually transferred to the church. This symbolized Constantine to be Christ’s thirteenth apostle. This was found to be too great of an honor for Constantine, and his tomb was moved to an adjoining circular mausoleum (Stokstad, 29). The remaining tomb of the apostles, the Apostoleion, was in the shape of the Greek cross with the altar at the intersection of the crossing. This shape was found to be so important that is was often repeated in future churches. The design of the Apostoleion became a vastly important shadow of future church design.
The major evolution of church design really begins in the fourth century with the building of two churches, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the shrine of St. Peter. These two churches were the first to combine the functionalities of both basilicas and martyria. The martyrium, which was centrally planned, had major practical design flaws as a church. The chief concern was that martyria could not hold as many people as a basilica. Also, the central plan of martyria took the focus away from the altar during church services. Basilicas also had major flaws that did not allow them to function as a martyrium, mainly that they were not centrally planned. Stokstad says that both the church of the Holy Sepulchre and the shrine of St. Peter housed relics of Saints, yet both also contained basilicas in order to hold church service. Old St. Peter’s was built with the shrine of St. Peter directly in front of the apse, while the church of the Holy Sepulchre contained two separate buildings, a basilica and tomb (Stokstad, 31-33). St. Peter’s was constructed in a T-shape rather than the traditional cross that is seen throughout Europe today due to its unprecedented nature. Though both churches solved the problem of combining basilicas and martyrias in different ways, the idea lasted throughout the ages.
Another important alteration to church design was the addition of the transept. St. Peters basilica was the first church to be built with a transept. The four side aisles of the church ran along side the nave and ended at the transept. This allowed pilgrims to walk through the church, while still giving room to the clergy. This proved to be an enormously important feature of the church.
Another important combination of the basilica and martyrium is St. John’s
Church. Stokstad points out that at the site where John the Evangelist died, a martyrium with a vaulted canopy was built. Within 100 years, large numbers of people began visiting the church. The small size of the martyrium did not allow it to support such large numbers of people. As a result, a church in the shape of a cross was built with the intersection of the nave and transept at the martyrium. At the end of the church, a narthex was created and one of the arms of the cross was enlarged to be a five aisled basilica (Stokstad, 44). Here again the basilica and martyrium are imaginatively combined to form one functional building.
The design of ancient baptisteries is also an alteration of the plan of Christian tombs. The central plan of the building was ideal for baptisms and viewing, while the building was also easily vaulted in order to symbolize heaven. Architects altered the circular design of the tombs by creating eight sided buildings. This was symbolic of the eighth day of creation when the world began. The addition of domes to the eight sided building also created pendentives, or spherical triangular shapes which are used extensively throughout the history of the Christian church.
When Emperor Justinian set out to create one of the most unique buildings in Christian history, he also set a precedent in architectural conceptualization. Justinian’s church, Hagia Sophia, combined the functionality of basilicas and martyria in a way that was unheard of in its day. This is not however, the only attempt to do this. In the past, this effect was achieved simply by building a basilica and a martyrium in union. Justinian’s architects, a mathematician and a physicist, created Hagia Sophia as one single building that functioned as a symbol to Byzantine religion, along with being able to accommodate the needs of the Byzantine church. Eastern churches were often built in a central planned style while Western religion preferred the basilican form. The main focus of Hagia Sophia was its dome. The dome, as in earlier churches, symbolized heaven. Stokstad mentions that to lighten the dome, it was created with brick and mortar rather than concrete. This allowed the dome to be set on a series of pendentives, similar to the pendentives of baptisteries. Along the base of the dome were several windows allowing light to shine on the church below also giving the dome a heavenly appearance. At the east and west ends of the nave two half domes projected outward. The narthex of the church was on the west side while the apse was at the east side. These two half-domes on the ends of the church as well as the side aisles of the church gave it a longitudinal appearance similar to the basilica, while at the same time the dome created a central focus in the church (Stokstad, 55). Justinian’s architects succeeded in creating the first Christian church that combined the functionality of both basilicas and martyrias.
The Church of St. Peter’s continued to play an important role in church design during Carolingian times. Builders in the Carolingian times often turned to the design of St. Peter’s for inspiration in their own church design. Even the famous St. Gall plan, the plan for the ideal monastery, contained a basilica similar to St. Peter’s. The church was a basilica with transept, and semicircular apse, just as we have seen earlier. The Abbey Church of Fulda, also similar to the basilica, was first built as a rectangular building meant to contain the relics of St. Boniface. Years later, the church was redesigned to appear as St. Peters Basilica did. A transept was added as well as atrium and a west end apse. Another church of Carolingian times that repeated the basilica theme was St. Riquier at Centula. This church was known for its verticality, yet it was basically a church with a basilica like form. Instead of one, it had two transepts, along with an ambulatory and wooden roof.
An important step in the creation of Gothic architecture came with the Romanesque period. The Romanesque period is famous for it’s use of large stone structure, particularly the arch. The famous church of S. Vicente was built very much in this style. The builders of S. Vicente were of the first to build using these large stone structures. The wide use of stone as a building material naturally led to the alteration of church design. Building with stone required constant attention to the strength of the building in areas that were prone to weakness. Curved overhead structures were unsurprisingly used extensively since this form is one of the strongest geometric shapes. S. Vicente, while closely resembling the crossed basilica with a dome at the crossing of the transept and nave, began to introduce key elements that would be carried on through the gothic age. Stokstad says that side aisles were groin vaulted, while the nave contained barrel vaults. The nave was divided into bays, and at the sides of each bay were arches leading to the side aisles. Also, the architects who designed the church built the arches with supporting bands, a technique that is seen throughout gothic times (Stokstad, 175). The interior of the church, as a result of its stone construction using vaults and archways, appeared complex compared to earlier basilicas. This effect became magnified as the verticality of churches increases in the gothic age.
The Cathedral of Speyer was another major step forward in the evolution of church structure. The Cathedral of Speyer was one of the largest churches built in its time. Its massive towers and large stone structures are characteristic of the Romanesque period. Even though the cathedral is a massive structure with striking towers, its skeletal structure is that of the basilica. The church had a nave, crossing transepts, and was quite longitudinal in structure. Alterations in design lead the eye to perceive a magnificent and complex church, yet it was built in a manor comparable to that of the basilica. The church was even built with a wooden roof as earlier churches were. On each transept two massive towers were built, as well as a large central tower on the east end of the church. Built underneath the sanctuary and transept was a large crypt. Composed mostly of piers and groin vaults to support the weight of the church above, it has a complex and divided appearance.
Gothic architecture develops from an increased understanding in architectural technology along with a desire to create ostentatious cathedrals. The sheer verticality of gothic Cathedrals was made possible by utilizing pointed arches, which are stronger than round arches, along with flying buttresses and ribbed vaults. The use of these architectural tools led to a natural change in appearance to churches. While still maintaining elements of the longitudinal basilica, gothic cathedrals were quite often complex divided structures. A keystone in the evolution of church structure came in the form of the Abbey Church of St. Denis. This church, like most others, still contains the traditional nave, transept, and apse. Simson states that the church is certainly one of the first gothic edifices built (Simson, 99). This church helped to bring about magnificence in church architecture. Abbot Suger, the builder of the church, firmly believed in the use of flamboyant design. The nave, which Suger believed “had been hallowed by the miraculous consecration that Christ in his own person had bestowed upon its walls”, was lengthened and adorned with murals (Simson, 101). Suger also made use of beautiful stained-glass windows, which adorned the entire church. The choir of the church was also built in a magnificent fashion. The builders of the church had created the gothic chevet, a choir composed of several vaults. The church is an excellent demonstration on how church architecture is altered in order to fit the beliefs of the builder. Though the basic function and design of the church did not change drastically, Suger’s beliefs and opinions were omnipresent in the church architecture. The Abbey Church of St. Denis was a significant bridge between the churches of the past and the churches of the future. Not only were Suger’s building techniques imitated in such places as Notre Dame and Senlis, but also Suger himself had adapted aspects of Norman architecture in his design (Simson, 102).
Perhaps one of the most famous and influential Gothic churches ever built is Chartres Cathedral in France. This cathedral is very similar to early basilicas, due to its longitudinal plan, however its most famous aspect is its verticality. Chartres Cathedral can be thought of as a stone basilica that has been stretched vertically. Williams says that the clerestory has been greatly heightened to allow the inlet of light through several stain glass windows (Williams, 96). This church also demonstrates the process of reusing architectural concepts in new churches, which aids the evolutionary process. Design ideas from earlier churches are often copied in altered forms in newly built churches. Williams states that the rose in the north transept façade at Laon is the prototype for the oculi of the Chartes Clearstory (Williams, 96). The result of the Chartres master’s vertical design is the use of flying buttresses, and quadripartite vaults. The buttresses help to support the extremely high vault while the vaults help the cathedral boast its vertical nature.
Church design in the middle ages was truly an evolutionary process. Early Christians began using basilicas as churches in order to fulfill their religious requirements. As time progressed, and new basilicas were built, functionalities of both basilicas and tombs were integrated into one building. Eventually, building techniques changed and made possible the towering churches of gothic architecture we know today. While the Christian religion did not make severe changes in its theology, building structure was influenced by the constant alteration of existing building forms as well as increasing demand for magnificence in style. It is quite obvious that even the most magnificent gothic churches were created in the shadow of the simplest Roman basilicas.
SOURCES CITED
Krautheimer, R. (1965). Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture, Baltimore: Penguin Books.
Simson, O. (1956). The Gothic Cathedral, New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers.
Stokstad, M. (1986). Medieval Art. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Wilson, C. (1990). The Gothic Cathedral, New York, NY: Thames and Hudson Inc.
