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The Constitutionality Of The Bank Of The United States, 1791 By Thomas Jefferson

The two documents such as the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States, 1791 by Thomas Jefferson to Washington and document 5; Alexander Hamilton, Opinion on the constitutionality of the Bank was written in same times but with different authors. Thomas Jefferson happened to be the author of the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States which was written in 1791, and Alexander Hamilton as well was the author of opinions on the constitutionality of the Bank written in the same year. All the two documents were letters written to answer the request of Washington.

However, in the two documents, Hamilton is said to have drawn his answer to Washington’s request much more deliberately than Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton was able to give the best answer because he had papers written from Virginians Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Edmund Randolph against the creation of the Bank of the United States hence allowing him to have arguments on what he was to answer. According to Thomas Jefferson, he quotes that; “If the American people ever allow private banks to control the issue of their currency, first by inflation, then by deflation, the banks and corporations that will grow up around them will deprive the people of all property until their children wake up homeless on the continent their Fathers conquered…I believe that banking institutions are more dangerous to our liberties than standing armies… The issuing power should be taken from the banks and restored to the people, to whom it properly belongs,” (Hamilton, Alexander & Jefferson, pg. 103).Research shows that Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton have been the most studied and beloved figures in the American history. And today, standard bearers of conservatism, radicalism as well as liberalism are utilizing their complex views to legitimize their arguments. The study also shows that various laws, values and customs have shaped the development of banking institutions in the United States in a distinctive way; however, it is evident that none has done so more than the vicious debate between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson over the development of the bank in 1791. Conversely, as the United States look toward banking reforms as a result of the economic collapse which took place in 2008, it may be critical to understand how the two document debate have become institutionalized into the America political fabric. For instance the Federalist and the anti-Federalist debate concerning the creation of the central bank as well as, the regulation of financial institutions created a yes or a no framework which up-to-date still dominates the American national political debate (Hamilton, Alexander & Jefferson, pg. 103).The two documents were written for different reasons. It is true that, each author wanted to accomplish something important by writing them down in a document format. The 1791 debate over central banking in the two documents were controversial. This is because, the central banking debate was largely rooted in anti-federalist as well as, federalist tensions, the second reason why the debate was controversial was that, the battle over the bank became an overly simplistic debate that was founded on its constitutionality which left no room for negotiation.Hamiltons’ opinion on the bank laid classical arguments of the people who favored an effective central government as well as a national power. However, according to Jefferson, he argued “the foundation of the constitution stated that all powers not delegated to the United States, by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States or to the people…” The main reason as to why Jefferson wrote a letter to Washington was that, Jefferson was Washington’s Secretary of State as part of Washington’s cabinet where he wanted to persuade George Washington by opposing the establishment of national banks in the U.S (Hamilton, Alexander & Jefferson, pg. 103).In the letter written by Thomas Jefferson, he condemned the system of banking as being “a blot” on the constitution, as corrupt, and that long-term government debt was “swindling” future generations. He quotes “I believe that banking institutions are more dangerous to our liberties than standing armies. If the American people ever allow private banks to control the issue of their currency, first by inflation, then by deflation, the banks and corporations that will grow up around will deprive the people of all property until their children wake-up homeless on the continent their fathers conquered. The issuing power should be taken from the banks and restored to the people, to whom it properly belongs.” From this quote, I believed that Jefferson indeed had no love for private banks, and that was actually what he wanted to accomplish by writing it down in a document. He goes on and says; “It is not easy to estimate the obstacles which, in the beginning, we should encounter in ousting the banks from their possession of the circulation; but a steady and judicious alternation of emissions and loans, would reduce them in time” (Hamilton, Alexander & Jefferson, pg. 103).The two documents actually revealed what was happening in America society in regards to the central banking debate. There were various events that took place to which the two documents referred to directly, first, the social contract did not give the Parliament a complete political authority over its colonists and thus all the powers of government, legislative, executive, and judiciary, were all resulting into a legislative body. Conversely, in economic matters, Jefferson believed that agriculture should be the backbone of the nation, however, Hamilton on the other hand, wanted a balanced economy of agriculture finance, manufacturing and trade making the two differ in their opinions.

ConclusionTo move the debate towards a more and good constructive framework as well as, to better manage these creative tensions; I therefore, propose that the bankers, the public, along with the politicians should do the following; First, they should develop a deliberate effort of identifying and understanding the complexities which may exist in guiding the fiscal policy. Second, the public along with their elected officials should ensure that they take ownership of the issue as well as, understand that central banks are limited in their capacity so as to prevent on the economic calamities. Lastly, the government should achieve an unprecedented level of transparency in the process in order to gain the trust and understanding of the American people. Conversely, reframing the debate in approach that is transparent will give politicians understand and feel comfortable with the Federal and thus utilize the Federal in the best way possible.

Works Cited

Daniels, Jonathan. Ordeal of ambition; Jefferson, Hamilton, Burr.. [1st ed. New York: Doubleday, 2009. Print.

Hamilton, Alexander, Thomas Jefferson, and Frederick Clarke Prescott. Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson; representative selections,. New York: American Book Co., 2008. Print.

McDonald, Forrest. “The Rhetoric of Alexander Hamilton.” The Imaginative Conservative. N.p., 2006 Web. 19 Nov. 2013. <http://www.theimaginativeconservative.org/2012/06/rhetoric-of-alexander-hamilton.html>.

Course

The Rituals of the Islamic Religion

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University

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Due Date

The Concept of Worship, Prayer, & Rituals In The Islamic Religion

The religion Muslim is important to understand through a business perspective. A brief summary of the history of Islam will be discussed as well as explaining the important elements for Muslims, which included but is not limited to the Qur’an, The Five Pillars and Ramadan. The different types of branches of Islam include Sunni, Shiite, and Sufi in which all have significant differences and similarities. The importance on the study of Muslim is important due to the world revolving around religion, however news media proves to escalate the problems when in fact Muslims are traditional humans who take their religion serious in both heart and in their beliefs, such as believing in Allah (God) and Muhammad.

When examining the concept of worship and prayer in the Islam, it is noticed that the religion takes the concept of worshipping and praising a higher power very passionately, and this is a very important aspect of an individual’s faith. It has always been the central practice of bringing all faiths together and serving as a common ground for all believers since the beginning of time. No matter what sect of a religion you believe in and practise, worship is something that stays evident and consistent throughout all sects of a religion. The Islamic faith emphasizes both public and private forms of worship. For believers, they each serve a different function, and each has a different meaning and purpose behind it. Private worshipping across these different faiths share many similarities that will be discussed later on, as well as examining public worshipping across these different faiths, while looking at the many similarities as well as differences that they all share together.

Ibada an umbrella term for religious devotion (Worship & Ritual chapter 12, p. 191). Muslim worship is referred to as “ibada,” or service to God, and involves praising and confessing sins to one’s lord. Salat is the Muslim term for prayer, and it is one of Islam’s pillars. Islam requires that certain actions be taken before a Muslim can pray their daily salat. Before a person prays, they must maintain and demonstrate their purity. Purity is extremely important in Islam with a famous hadith quoting “Purity is half the faith” (Worship & Ritual chapter 12, p. 191). Islamic prayer requires that a person attain this “purity” that the religion so reveres. Muslims must perform an action prior to their salat called “wudu”. Water is required when performing wudu, and if water isn’t accessible one must perform an action called “tayammum”. Tayammum substitutes water with elements of the earth such as sand or clay to purify oneself. Showing the multiple ways Muslims can purify themselves before prayer represents how important purity is when it comes to worship in Islam. Now that we have discussed what has to be done before worship, it is time to discuss how Muslims worship privately and publicly.

The history of the Muslim religion started with a vision that Muhammad had when he was in a cave by Allah. Allah is the God to the Muslim Religion. As Muhammad was born in the town Mecca many events lead to the forming of the religion. Mecca had fame due to having black meteorites representing to the people as falling rocks from Heaven. The people in Mecca built a shrine over the black Meteorites known as Kabah. The Kabah is a very sacred area to the Muslim religion as it is Private to the world. In accordance to Molloy, “Islamic religion basically translates to “submission” and “giving in fully” implying total submission to God’s will”, (Ch.10). The Islamic religion is a serious deal especially when talking about Muhammad and Allah. The Qur’an is represented as a bible to the Muslim Religion. The stepping­stones of the religion and history as well as Religion laws are set in the Qur’an. Although Islam prohibits images artist have to record everything in sacred words to be able to describe the writings.

Each and every day, Muslims are obligated to fulfill five prayers in praise of Allah (SWT)., when it comes to private prayer in Islam. These five prayers, which focus on one’s relationship with God, can be done in private throughout the day. These five daily prayers, on the other hand, can be said in public. When it is time to pray, “a chanted call to prayer in Arabic called adhan” (Worship & Ritual chapter 12, p. 192) is performed to alert everyone that it is time to stop and pray. Private worship in Islam is typically performed at home and can include acts of worship such as reading the Quran, praying, and reciting other holy scriptures (Bellah & Rappaport, 1999). Fasting is another form of worship in Islam, and Muslims must fast for one month during the Islamic month of Ramadan. Fasting is another form of private worship that is valued in Islam.

Now that we’ve covered the private aspect of worship, let’s turn our attention to the public aspect of prayer in Islam. As long as the person is praying to the Ka’aba shrine in Mecca, public and private worship can take place anywhere. Private prayers are typically performed alone, whereas public prayers are typically performed in groups. When a group prays publicly together, “this requires a leader in the congregation who stands at the front and sets the tone with his or her voice and body language” (Worship & Ritual chapter 12, p. 193). Furthermore, for the salat to be acceptable in public group prayers, the prayer leader must be a male. Finally, in order for the prayer to be accepted in both private and public worship in Islam, the individual(s) must perform a “niyya, meaning intention” right before the prayer begins (Worship & Ritual chapter 12, p.193). The “mosque” is Islam’s holiest place of worship, and it is where the majority of public worship takes place. Friday prayers are an important part of public worship in Islam, and it is recommended that all Muslims go to the mosque to worship God as a group on Friday. As part of public worship in Islam, sermons and lectures are also held inside the mosque.

The Qur’an is a written symbol that represents Islam’s people’s religion. Praying, fasting, and living according to the Qur’an on a daily basis are among the rituals that take place. According to Molloy, “the Qur’an has 114 chapters, or Suras” (Ch.10). Each Sura or chapter of the Qur’an is given a name, such as the elephant, thunder, Light, and moon. The Suras are arranged in length order, shortest to longest. The final chapters of the Qur’an are brief. Because the order in the Qur’an is reversed, the chapters, like those of other religions, are not always in chronological order. Abu Bakr caliphate, according to Hooker, is where the Qur’an was written down after Muhammad’s death. Bakr was important to Muhammad.

Bakr was recognized as the first Caliph. After Muhammad’s death, the Caliph is in charge. Although the Qur’an is a guide for all Muslims and the people of Islam, the Five Pillars are also important in guiding the religion.

The five Pillars are, according to Molloy, ” Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), Fasting During Ramadan (Sawm), Charity to the Poor (Zakat), Prayer (Salat), and Creed (Shahadah).” (Ch.10). An Islamic creed, or shahadah, is depicted as a whisper into a newborn’s ears. Muslims believe there is only one god, Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah. The message is brief, but it contains foundational words. Salat is another piller in which devout Muslims pray five times a day, at dawn, noon, midafternoon, sunset, and night. Zakat is a religious donation in the form of a fixed monetary amount. The estimated percentage is 2.5 percent of total money generated. Sawm represents religious fasting in order to establish religious discipline and respect. The Hajj is a symbol of people attempting to find Mecca at least once in their lives. Another important Islamic topic is Ramadan. Ramadan is a month of fasting during which no food, drink, or sexual activity is permitted. This long tradition, which lasts 29­30 days, is known all over the world. An opportunity for spiritual reflection and growth, as well as service to others and time spent with loved ones, are all part of a Muslim holiday season. As Muslims, we strive to grow spiritually and become closer to Allah and those we love. Between sunrise and sunset, they abstain from daily luxuries like smoking, drinking, and having sex with others. Additionally, In Ramadan, Muslims devote themselves to spiritual reflection and unity by reciting the Quran, praying, fasting, doing charitable acts, and spending time with loved ones while avoiding lying, gossiping and fighting.

Islamic prayer is either an act of supplication or an act of worship. Because supplication is among the most essential aspects. Almighty Allah’s glory is its primary objective. Maintaining contact with one’s religious beliefs is the most critical duty of a Muslim. Every Muslim adult, male or female, is required to pray on a personal level. In order to cultivate the habit of prayer in a child, it is expected that he begin at the age of seven. The punishment will be severe if he refuses to do it by the age of 10. Additional to this, they pray to receive a message from God or Allah in addition to the other requirements

Muslim culture or spirituality places a high value on fasting and prayer ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“DOI”:”10.1007/s13668-018-0233-2″,”ISSN”:”21613311″,”abstract”:”Purpose of review: Since the early development of human societies, religious beliefs, and practices has been integral to their identity, culture, and social structure, traditions are influenced by the area, era, and culture wherein they developed. Some religions offer advice on behavioral and diet modifications as strategies to fortify the body, purify the spirit, and elevate consciousness. This review is an attempt to compare different practices, describe the health benefits and risks of fasting, and reconcile these age-old recommendations with practical modern life. Recent findings: Research to clarify and quantify the impact of these dietary modifications is challenging due to the variability in recommendations among various religions and in day-to-day practices. Summary: Most religions share common goals of well-being, body-mind integration, and spiritual attainment. Historically, the transformational power of fasting periods has been appreciated, but there is still much to discover about the underlying beneficial physiologic mechanisms of fasting in preventing and treating metabolic diseases.”,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Venegas-Borsellino”,”given”:”Carla”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Sonikpreet”,”given”:””,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Martindale”,”given”:”Robert G.”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Current Nutrition Reports”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″,”9″,”1″]]},”page”:”131-138″,”publisher”:”Current Science Inc.”,”title”:”From Religion to Secularism: the Benefits of Fasting”,”type”:”article”,”volume”:”7″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=594bbbd1-e649-3338-981c-f852e8fc82b9″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Venegas-Borsellino et al., 2018)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Venegas-Borsellino et al., 2018)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Venegas-Borsellino et al., 2018)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Venegas-Borsellino et al., 2018). Fasting is yet another distinguishing feature of Islam in terms of morality and spirituality. Basically, fasting means abstaining from all food, drink, sex, and tobacco use for an entire day. Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, mandates that all of this must be completed between the hours of sunrise and sunset. It is the goal of this pillar to help Muslims better understand what it means to have a positive attitude toward humanity ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“DOI”:”10.1080/1369118X.2017.1340970″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Johnson”,”given”:”Mark R.”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Information, Communication & Society”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”12″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2017″,”12″,”2″]]},”page”:”1844-1847″,”publisher”:”Informa UK Limited”,”title”:”Gods in and of the machine: morality, divination and meaning in digital religion and games”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”20″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=5db95eb1-c0f0-3b52-9721-a6dab0cc4359″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Johnson, 2017)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Johnson, 2017)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Johnson, 2017)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Johnson, 2017). Salah, the final of Islam’s five pillars of prayer, requires that all Muslims walk in prayer in a regular and orderly fashion every day. Observed and performed at predetermined times five times a day, it is a physical, mental and spiritual expression of worship. During this time, they are required to pray facing Mecca. Muslims must first stand, bow, abject themselves, and then sit on the ground, effectively ending the prayer (2013, April 19). Islamic prayer involves reciting or reading special verses and prayers at various points in the year. For the most part, salah, or prayer, serves as a means of communication with God and a way to keep God in mind. Muslim lives are influenced greatly by this Pillar because it defines their relationship and allegiance to Allah, making it a high priority for Muslims.

It’s an excellent time to focus on one’s religious beliefs and grow closer to Allah, while also developing patience and compassion ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“DOI”:”10.5144/0256-4947.2002.186″,”ISSN”:”02564947″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Azizi”,”given”:”Fereidoun”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Annals of Saudi Medicine”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3-4″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2002″]]},”page”:”186-191″,”publisher”:”King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre”,”title”:”Research in Islamic fasting and health”,”type”:”article”,”volume”:”22″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=63c6d10c-7f98-37fd-ba3a-3a9acf5b5ef4″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Azizi, 2002)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Azizi, 2002)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Azizi, 2002). It’s about taking care of both your mind and body. First and foremost, the qualities adopted during fasting are the qualities we should exhibit as Muslims. The month serves as a constant reminder of how we should behave in general, not just during this month. The month reminds us to strive for purity and discipline ourselves to perform these acts in order to secure it in our daily lives, becoming accustomed to purifying our beliefs as well as our bodies, minds, and souls ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2345-2587″,”abstract”:”Introduction: Nearly one billion adult Muslims across the world refrain from eating, drinking, and smoking from dawn until dusk during the holy month of Ramadan. The duration of Islamic fasting varies depending on the coinciding season and geographical location. The present study aimed to review the health benefits of Islamic fasting. Methods: This review was carried out after searching in several databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Medline, PMC, Google Scholar and also the related articles. Results: Islamic fasting is along with many health benefits such as the reduced risk of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and cancer. Although, some health problems have mentioned during Islamic fasting like dehydration, headaches. Conclusion: According to the results of this review, religious fasting positively influences the body weight and lipid and glucose levels, while exerting antioxidative effects, increasing longevity, and improving the renal and immune function. The health benefits of fasting could be reinforced through the balanced intake of various nutrients, such as dairy products, fruits and vegetables, meat and fish, cereals, and grains, as well as beverages such as water and milk, during Ramadan.”,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Massoud”,”given”:”Ramona”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Sharifan”,”given”:”Anoosheh”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Massoud”,”given”:”Armita”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Nutrition,Fasting and Health”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020″]]},”page”:”17-22″,”title”:”Religious Fasting; the Purgation of Soul and Body”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”8″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e45c9f55-b642-3929-b293-b615ecf0936b”]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Massoud et al., 2020)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Massoud et al., 2020)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Massoud et al., 2020)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Massoud et al., 2020). Increasing our closeness to Allah SWT and instilling fear of our Lord – it is critical to remember who our Creator is, why we were placed here, and what our goals are in this material world; to remember that this world is merely a stop-gap (albeit a very brief one) on our journey to the Hereafter. We should strive for taqwa and to be as close to Allah as possible.

Connecting with our Lord is critical for remembering why we’re here in the first place; otherwise, we’ll get lost in this realm, which is exactly what we’re here to avoid. In our materialistic world, we frequently fail to recognize how dependent we are on Allah SWT. As a result, the practice of remaining humble at all times; a simple act such as fasting simply demonstrates how dependent we are on our Lord and His creation ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“abstract”:”The main purpose of this paper is to provide an analytical justification about how important the fasting is for the humankind. In fact, it is a theoretical paper which motivates regarding the issues of benefits that we can achieve from fasting. The results of the paper disclose some significant reasons that fasting can be considered as a well being program to acquire patience, strong will, righteousness, sincerity, good manners, discipline, better sense of prestige, better dieting habits, and many other physical and spiritual benefits of human being in order to establish peace, prosperity and sustainable development of the society. However, the limitation of the paper was it could not consider any numerical examples in favour of the main message of the study because of lack of data availability. Nevertheless, the paper shows its originality in substance and makes a unique contribution to the literature on one of the most important pillars of Islam”,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hossain”,”given”:”Mohammad Zakir”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2012″]]},”page”:”184-190″,”title”:”Fasting in Islam : Its Excellence, Benefits and Use for Sustainable Development of the Society”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”3″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6406567c-9d97-3565-9253-1e5e148fbf20″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Hossain, 2012)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Hossain, 2012)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Hossain, 2012)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Hossain, 2012). Ramadan reminds us to be humble and selfless while also having empathy and compassion for others.

Ramadan, like many other Islamic attributes, serves to remind us that we are all equal in this world, regardless of skin color, race, religion, gender, or social status. We’ll all end up in the same place, wearing the same clothes, carrying only our amaal and leaving behind all worldly possessions. That is when we will truly understand how those we helped in this world contribute to what we bring into the next.

Despite the fact that Islamic ideals are generally peaceful, many Muslims are vehemently opposed to another religion coexisting with Islam and feel compelled to kill the infidel. This suggests that this group is going through a difficult time. Because of this conflict, it may be easier for this group to connect with Muslims by bridging the gap and participating in some of their religious and cultural traditions ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“DOI”:”10.2307/1387619″,”ISSN”:”00218294″,”abstract”:”This book argues that religion can and must be reconciled with science. Combining adaptive and cognitive approaches, it is a comprehensive analysis of religion’s evolutionary significance, and its inextricable interdependence with language. It is also a detailed study of religion’s main component, ritual, which constructs the conceptions that we take to be religious and therefore central in the making of humanity’s adaptation. The text amounts to a manual for effective ritual, illustrated by examples drawn from a range of disciplines.”,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Bellah”,”given”:”Robert N.”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Rappaport”,”given”:”Roy A.”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”4″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“1999″]]},”page”:”569″,”title”:”Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”38″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=fd26613c-c1bf-3fa4-8aaa-b92dfc0993ca”]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Bellah & Rappaport, 1999)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Bellah & Rappaport, 1999)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Bellah & Rappaport, 1999)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Bellah & Rappaport, 1999). Almsgiving is a central tenet of Islam, and I believe that connecting with it would be beneficial for these people ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“DOI”:”10.4172/2161-0711.1000178″,”abstract”:”A review of research articles on Ramadan fasting indicates that fasting can serve as an excellent research model for Psycho-social behaviour and health studies. The purpose of fasting for Muslims is to learn self-restraint from indulgence in everyday pleasures, for self-discipline, to develop God-consciousness, to develop self-control, to purify the body, and to empathize with the poor and hungry. Muslims describe a feeling of inner peace and tranquillity. This involves restraining anger, doing good deeds, exercising personal discipline, and preparing one to serve as a good Muslim and a good person. One of the greatest advantages of fasting is that its true observance inculcates in a person a habit of speaking the truth. Fasting is a powerful therapeutic process that can help people recover from mild to severe health conditions.”,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”S”,”given”:”Ahmad”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”K”,”given”:”Goel”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”KA”,”given”:”Maroof”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”P”,”given”:”Goel”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Community Medicine & Health Education”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”09″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2012″]]},”title”:”Psycho-Social Behaviour and Health Benefits of Islamic Fasting During the Month of Ramadan”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”02″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=263b0784-0acd-37de-b1c8-2304b5bd7e1f”]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(S et al., 2012)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(S et al., 2012)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(S et al., 2012)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(S et al., 2012). For this reason, I believe Christians and Muslims can find a common ground on giving to the poor in the Bible, which will make it easier to develop connections and spread the message.

A Shiite is someone who believes in Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. The Shiite sect was founded by a political movement that supported Ali. A Sunni is a follower of Muhammad’s way of life. Sunnis account for 80 percent of Muslims. Shitte are distinguished by their pure white or pure black headdress. Sunnis shave their mustaches and wear a smaller headband. Sufis and scholars regard a Sufi as Islam’s inner, mystical, or psycho­spiritual dimension. Sufis interpreted various Qur’anic concepts as mystical interpretations. Every type of follower has their own set of beliefs. Despite the fact that all of the movements spawned political movements, being able to identify each individual is critical because they do not get along.

Conclusion

In the Islamic religion, the passage of time is significant. Muslims are born with a strong sense of discipline, despite the fact that traditions are common among Muslims. The Qur’an and the Five Pillars are inextricably linked. The Qur’an is Islam’s fundamental prayer, law, and way of life. Ramadan is significant in business because it is necessary to respect a worker’s or business investor’s religion. It is essential to pray five times a day and to respect others. Sports, like many other aspects of life, teach restraint and discipline. Self-discipline practice allows you to separate from certain desires as well as constrain and detach yourself from your needs, allowing you to achieve true independence. Without the unnecessary burdens and indulgent wants and needs of daily life, such as status, material, money, stress, and possessions, one can achieve true contentment, freedom, and, most importantly, simplicity. Fasting helps to sharpen and direct the mind’s focus, allowing us to remember the reason for our existence and restore balance in our lives.

REFERENCES

ADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Azizi, F. (2002). Research in Islamic fasting and health. In Annals of Saudi Medicine (Vol. 22, Issues 3–4, pp. 186–191). King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre. https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2002.186

Bellah, R. N., & Rappaport, R. A. (1999). Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38(4), 569. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387619

Hossain, M. Z. (2012). Fasting in Islam : Its Excellence, Benefits and Use for Sustainable Development of the Society. Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences, 3(3), 184–190. https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC132217

Johnson, M. R. (2017). Gods in and of the machine: morality, divination and meaning in digital religion and games. Information, Communication & Society, 20(12), 1844–1847. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1340970

Massoud, R., Sharifan, A., & Massoud, A. (2020). Religious Fasting; the Purgation of Soul and Body. Journal of Nutrition,Fasting and Health, 8(1), 17–22. http://eprints.mums.ac.ir/18097/

S, A., K, G., KA, M., & P, G. (2012). Psycho-Social Behaviour and Health Benefits of Islamic Fasting During the Month of Ramadan. Journal of Community Medicine & Health Education, 02(09). https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0711.1000178

Venegas-Borsellino, C., Sonikpreet, & Martindale, R. G. (2018). From Religion to Secularism: the Benefits of Fasting. In Current Nutrition Reports (Vol. 7, Issue 3, pp. 131–138). Current Science Inc. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-018-0233-2

The contemporary American political philosophies

The United States of America is a highly diversified country – with people from very different backgrounds. The country has seen several political parties since independence but at the moment there are two political parties – Democratic Party and Republican Party – that define American political ideology. The Democratic Party was formed by Thomas Jefferson back in 1792. It is committed to fighting for the poor, weak, marginalized and downtrodden by advocating for a government framework that gives them the full opportunity to enjoy the American dream. The Republican Party came into existence in the early 1850s and produced Abraham Lincoln as the first president from the party. Their ideology promotes minimal government involvement in people’s welfare, leaving the economy to run freely. The country is roughly divided equally behind these two opposing political camps, at least according to results of major elections held recently. During elections, the electorate is usually split almost evenly between liberal democratic principles and republican ideology that is more conservative. This divide is seen in all major issues affecting the country and the people, and each side presents strong arguments to support their stand.

Party Principles

Democrats generally ascribe to a liberal philosophy where government has a major role of overseeing and regulating the economy. In addition to this, democratic principles also advocate for the redistribution of economic wealth to benefit the needy people. Democrats believe it is the duty of the government to ensure all people are well taken care of, through programs like food stamps, social welfare, healthcare and education for those in need. The government should provide a social safety net for every individual as well as opportunities for all regardless of power or wealth.

Republican philosophy is more conservative and members believe it is not the government’s responsibility to take care of individuals. The party believes in personal responsibility, where individuals determine how they want to live, and being left to succeed or fail based on their own efforts without government input. Republicans believe that things like education, employment and healthcare are personal choices that the government should not determine for an individual. Furthermore, they believe that each individual’s freedom, dignity and ability should be respected. Theirs is a market-oriented approach with minimal government interference.

Voting patterns

From election results in the last six presidential elections, democratic presidential candidates have garnered majority votes in five instances. This is taken to reflect a trend in which the country is becoming more receptive to democratic ideology. This is seen from the strong support the democrats draw on issues like healthcare, taxes, economic growth and government regulation. This is because the Democratic Party proposes to a government that helps the people to ensure that the weak in society also get a decent life. Republicans want to leave people on their own to take care of themselves, even for the disadvantaged who are unable to do so. In a republican set up, the rich are likely to flourish while the poor continue to suffer.

Economy and employment

It has been established that the American economy performs better under Democrat presidents than republican presidents. Ideologically, democrats support balancing budgets, increasing taxes on the higher income bracket, and fair trade. On the opposite side, republicans believe in lowering the tax burden, limiting government spending on social welfare programs, and letting handle their own economic well-being. Over the decades, republicans have come to be seen as a party of trade restrictions, fiscal irresponsibility, failing micro-economics and big government. As for democrats, they are relatively viewed as fiscally responsible, having good microeconomic policies, and allowing free trade and competitive markets.

An analysis of federal budget statistics indicates a tendency for government deficit to rise during republican presidencies. For example, both Reagan and Bush introduced tax cuts in 1981 and 2001 respectively, with the result being a poor long-term budget outlook. In between the two republicans, Clinton’s administration recorded declining deficits and eventually high surpluses. In as much as many factors affect the overall budget, Clinton took two important steps that boosted economic growth. First, he established new trends for spending and tax revenues. Secondly, his “Save social security first” strategy helped to successfully block republicans desire to cut taxes, and even the democrats desire to increase spending. Thus, he was able to preserve the new surpluses the government had gained.

Republicans are supposed to put more effort into fighting inflation but in practice, their presidents have tended to put pressure on the Fed to relax on monetary policy. They are also expected to support small government but it has been shown that federal employment rises during republican governments. When it comes to free trade, republican actions are contrary to what their proclamations of support. They are known for protectionist actions like tariffs and export restraints. Many of the country’s economic decisions are hindered by current national security issues. There is increased spending on national security and this seems to be hurting other areas of the economy. Much of this increase is usually seen during republican presidencies, especially in recent years under George W. Bush.

Data from the U.S. Census on annual changes in income, unemployment and poverty over the last 50 years indicate that minority groups flourish under democratic governments but lose ground when republicans take over. Economic improvements happen to the whole nation as a whole under democrats, not just minority groups, as white Americans also fair better under democrats. This is one of the reasons why President Obama overwhelmingly won the black and Latino vote. The differences in economic performance under the two parties can be attributed to inherent ideological differences. Minority groups tend to fall under poor or lower-income bracket, and Democrat ideology calls for the protection and boosting of these groups economically. Democrat policies usually favor these groups, for example Clinton’s expansion of the earned income tax credits gave low-income earners tax refunds. Democrats usually introduce a range of policies that are intended to boost minority communities on issues like education and immigration reforms.

Democrat presidents tend to emphasize overall economic and job growth that ends up benefitting everyone, including minorities. Republicans, on the other hand, put more emphasis on reducing inflation, even if it means unemployment rising as a result. With the minority groups growing in numbers, and most U.S. children being born to minority parents, economic gains for minorities make the overall economy stronger for all Americans. Therefore, there is a tendency for voters, both whites and minorities, to support democratic ideologies on the economy and even other issues.

Education

The Democratic Party aims to expand education opportunities and make them available for every child today. This is seen clearly in President Obama’s policy of “No Child Left Behind”. The party aims to achieve this policy through expanded government support, and a raft of other measures like cutting student loan rates, and introducing deductibles on college tuition tax. By paying for expanded education policies using higher taxation, the democrats are staying true to their principles on redistribution of wealth. Republicans approach to education is guided by the principle of personal responsibility with less government support. They believe that federal government should not get involved with state and local schools. From these two positions, it is clear that the democrat approach is more popular with many people. Minority groups and many white people are likely to support the Democratic Party based on their efforts to make education available and affordable to all.

Healthcare

Democrats propose that the federal government provides a healthcare system that includes everyone, so that everyone gets access to healthcare coverage. Democrats want to force citizens to purchase healthcare insurance through the government. The proposed Obamacare aims to achieve this mainly through increasing taxation on the higher income bracket. Republicans have been vehemently opposed to Obamacare and any universal healthcare program that is funded through government. Whereas they also propose a more affordable healthcare program, they plan to achieve this through lowering taxes for people who purchase health insurance, so that it is easier for them to purchase on their own. According to republican principles, it is wrong for those who are on welfare to get health insurance from the government, while many hard-working people cannot afford it. In such a situation, republicans are likely to get support from well-to-do Americans who can afford their won private health insurance. As for minority groups and many white Americans who struggle with health insurance payments, the democratic route presents a better option since they will have a ‘safety net’ even when they cannot afford healthcare.

Immigration

America has long been seen as the land of opportunity and many immigrants make every effort to get there, whether legally or otherwise. The number of immigrants has been on the increase and their presence is being felt significantly. This has made immigration a very hot issue in the U.S. political arena. Democrats are sympathetic to immigrants in their policies and ideologies and this has seen them get a lot of political support from them. According to democrats, immigrants who are already in America should be afforded the same opportunities as U.S. citizens so that they work and contribute to the economy. Republicans are against illegal immigrants earning the same opportunities as U.S. citizens. They believe that immigrants are taking opportunities that should be available to citizens, and all illegal immigrants should be deported. With such a harsh republican stand on immigration, they are likely to get support from the Latino vote and any other migrant group in the U.S. Even immigrants who are already settled in the U.S. legally are sympathetic to illegal immigrants. As minority groups grow in number, they tend to boost democratic political base and make the country more popular overally in the country.

Foreign policy

Republicans favor a more American involvement in world affairs backed by a strong military presence. They believe that the best way to keep America safe is through pre-emptive military intervention against perceived threats and enemies. To this extent, they support increased military spending and excursions abroad. They also want a tough stance against countries like Iran and Syria. Republicans are usually seen as pro-war and believe America should use its military right to secure the rights of its citizens and the rest of the world. They see America playing an oversight role over the rest of the world and flexing its military muscle as much as possible.

On the opposite side, democrats are anti-war and prefer to cut military spending and reduce American military intervention abroad. Democrats have been at the forefront in trying to bring American troops back home from Iraq and Afghanistan. Whereas the republican approach was seen as the best way to fight the threat of terrorism, major failures have made many people rethink their support. For example, there were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq yet the public was misled to believe that was the reason for the invasion in the first place. Saddam may no longer be there, but Iraq is not anyway safer, with rampant sectarian violence that has claimed many U.S. troops stationed there.

The republican push for a stronger American input in world affairs may have been well intended initially but the outcomes have left many Americans disillusioned. The main concerns include the loss of American lives fighting abroad and the amount of government spending that goes into those wars. This is especially so if the public feels that military intervention may not be necessary in the first place. Furthermore, republican-driven wars, like the Iraq Invasion, have been followed by tough economic times back at home. Whether there is a clear connection between wars and subsequent economic turmoil or not, public perception is that wars are costing America a lot more than they should. For this reason, the democrat approach of less military spending and less American military presence across the world is looking more attractive. Furthermore, democrats have been steadfast and consistent with their approach to foreign policy while republicans have been floundering on their stand regarding the same.

Individual Liberty

Democrats firmly believe in the concept that all humanity deserves liberty, and human individuals sometimes have to be restrained for their own good and the good of others. However, there is that inherent belief that the government should have greater control on people’s day-to-day lives. This can only be achieved, of course, through higher taxes. Republicans want lots of individual freedom, especially when it comes to business and other economic activities. However, this only applies to Americans, especially the white folks in the Republican Party. They will not raise so much concern if people are being denied individual liberties abroad, or even if the same is happening at home to minority groups.

Religion is another hot issue that shows clear divide between republicans and democrats. Republicans, on the extreme, can be termed as religious zealots. They believe it is their duty to enforce God’s will and plan on the people. They tie their religious commitment to the preservation of traditional family values. For this reason, republicans are strongly opposed to abortion and are even against contraceptive use. They believe abstinence and following God’s word is enough to solve problems like teen pregnancies. Republicans are also strongly opposed to the issue of gay rights, which they consider ungodly and should not be permitted. Gay rights are a threat to traditional family values espoused by the republicans.

Democrat approach to religion is hinged on the fundamental belief in individual liberties. For this reason, they are relaxed on religion and accommodate a whole range of religious views, including atheists. By extension, they believe in an individual’s right to make a whole range of choices without strictly following the traditional teachings of the church. On the issue of abortion, democrats believe that it is the right of the woman to choose whether she wants to have a baby or not. To this end, democrats usually support family health programs both home and abroad. Democrats also advocate for gay rights as an important element of individual liberties. This support has gained the Democratic Party a lot of support from the LGBT group, which is becoming very vocal and very influential on the public political arena.

Democrats relaxed approach to such issues like religion, gays and abortion make it more appealing to young, urban populations that are grappling with these issues on a daily basis. The republican views on the same are seen by many as retrogressive and unfair on individuals. America is a diverse nation of different cultures and the republicans seem to be promoting only white American culture and seeking to impose it on the rest of the people. Democrats are seen to be more accommodating by allowing a wide range of personal choices on issues of religion, culture and personal preference. For this reason, democrats are appealing to the educated white Americans in urban areas and the rest of the non-white Americans. With the population of non-white Americans on the rise, their political input is becoming increasingly important and the Democratic Party is gaining a lot from having embraced these groups with accommodative ideologies.

Conclusion

American political landscape is roughly divided equally between two opposing camps – democrats and republicans. These two political parties have strikingly divergent political ideologies that influence their views on various important issues that affect American people and the nation at large. Democrats believe it is the duty of the government to ensure that each citizen enjoys a quality life. For this reason, the government must take an active role in providing services like healthcare, education and economic empowerment, especially to weak groups that are unable to afford these things on their own. Republicans favor less government involvement in such matters, instead advocating for individuals to be left free to determine their own lives.

The difference in ideology between the two parties is seen in the way they run government when in power. Democrats favor increasing taxes on the higher income bracket and a free trade economy. They want more government spending on social welfare programs, and less on the military. Republicans want to lower taxes on the rich and reduce government spending on social welfare. They prefer everyone to take care of themselves with no special protections for the weak and underprivileged. Republicans want a strong American involvement in world affairs, mainly achieved through flexing its military muscle. They are usually proponents of war while Democrats generally oppose wars. The democratic stand on a range of issues like religion, immigration, individual liberties and social welfare has made it very attractive to more Americans, especially the growing proportion of minority groups. This is why Democrats have been able to appeal to the modern voter more than the conservative republicans.

Bibliography

Appleby, J. The American Vision. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2005.

Campbell, Andrea, L. How Policies Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.

Fried, Joseph. 2008. Democrats and Republicans–rhetoric and reality: comparing the voters in statistics and anecdotes. New York: Algora Pub.

Polsby, Nelson W., Aaron Wildavsky, and David A. Hopkins. 2008. Presidential elections: Strategies and structures of American politics. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Witcover, J. “Rise and Fall of the Great Society.” In Party of the People: A history of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 518. 2003.

Woodward, Bob, Maestro: Greenspan’s Fed and American Boom, New York, Simon and Schuster, 2000.

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The Concept, Origin and Spread of the Order of Illuminati

One of the most vexed issues in the present international world order is Illuminati. The concept of illuminism is fraught in much controversy, with people holding different views in respect of different aspects thereto. At the very heart of the controversies is the basis of the Order of the Illuminati; whether it is real conspiracy or a fictional belief; what it essentially entails; and the implication of membership thereto, if any. Deriving from this, several questions have arisen, with many uncertain answers by scholars, philosophers, and researchers alike. In light of the foregoing, the paper succinctly critiques the article, ‘a primer on the Illuminati’ by William McIlhany.

The subject of illuminati is no doubt a significant concern to a majority of people today. A cursory perusal over written articles, movies or fictional books on this subject portrays somewhat fierce conspiratorial order. Suffice to say, many attribute illuminati with inhumane acts coupled with manifestation of supernatural powers. Elsewhere, other commentators hold the view that Illuminati arose as an order with the germane aim of defying the existing religious, social and political orders and replacing them with their desires, and subsequently exercising control over the same (McIlhany, 31).

Summary and Evaluation

The article by William McIlhany on the subject of Illuminati attempts to offer response to the above conflicted questions. With much precision, William McIlhany in his informative article has placed much emphasis on unveiling the root of Illuminati, its central theme, its spread, reprisal thereto and the current situation. At the very onset of the paper, McIlhany remarks that since time immemorial, there have emerged many secret and conspiratorial movements. In the author’s perspective, these movements have often been driven by certain motives, with the key goals being inter alia gain absolute authority over the universe, dismantle existing governance arrangements and at last destroy religious orders (McIlhany, 31). This is akin to the position highlighted in the introductory section of the paper.

The central philosophy adopted by the author in respect to Illuminati is that it had originated as an association in the eighteenth century. As a consequence of destructive movements, McIlhany asserts that Illuminati arose in Bavaria, Germany, in pursuance of the instructions from Adam Weishaupt (McIlhany, 32). In this regard, the author holds that Weishaupt’s formation of the organizational structure of Illuminati was inspired by the desire to direct worldwide attack on religion and monarchy. Thus, on May 1, 1776 Weishaupt formally founded the order, in which it was referred to as ‘the Order of Illuminati’ (McIlhany, 32). Though the author gives the origin of the Order, the article does not however give a sound rationale behind the adoption of the name itself.

Following the formation of the Order of Illuminati, it is illustrated in the article it gained the membership of other persons, precisely clergymen and leaders of various institutions, inclusive of monarchs. With such membership, it became much easier to exercise authority and issue directives on how the Order of Illuminati was henceforth to be governed. Regarding its organization, McIlhany writes that its members were required to submit to the Order. In fact, McIlhany states that Weishaupt established spies wherein secret police would kill anyone who opted to reveal the secrets of the conspiracy (McIlhany, 34).

I am led to believe that the author has not fully brought out the issue regarding the membership of the Order of Illuminati satisfactorily. Precisely, it appears as though the membership was limited to clergymen and leaders. Even though it is reasonable to observe that such persons would have significantly contributed to the membership of the Order, other ordinary persons were as well included. Thus, the author should as well address their input in equal measure.

Critical to this critique, it is noted in the article that most loyal members of the Order enjoyed myriad sensual and material benefits. In the averments of the author, ‘the power of the Order must be turned to the advantages of its authors…money, services, honor, goods, and blood must be expected for the fully proved Brethren.’ Within the writings of the Order were included the system of operations. Some of the instructions included; fomenting hatred and bloodshed between the religious, racial and ethnic groups; entrenching hatred between children and parents; and instructions on the kind of buildings to be burned (p.34). Indeed the author remarks that with the above arrangement and benefits, the conspiratorial structure in Bavaria made great achievements. These pieces of information are indeed reliable, considering that the article provides specific dates when each material event took place.

The spread of the Order of Illuminati is traced to 1782 when its power and influence began to mushroom outside Bavaria (McIlhany, 34). Herein, it is indicated that Von Knigge was quite instrumental in persuading many German and French people to join the Order (McIlhany, 34). The upshot of this was that the whole of German freemansory become under the auspices of the Illuminati. Besides, as the French Revolution ensued, the Order of Illuminati had spread in France (McIlhany, 35). This trend spread to other parts of Europe and into the US. However, according to the author, the practice of the Order of Illuminati was met with much resistance. Its revival was nonetheless engineered by leaders such as Karl Bahrdt and Baron von Knigge (McIlhany, 36).

Response

While the preceding paragraphs sets out the summary and evaluation of the article in respect to the Order of Illuminati, it is important to observe that there are areas that I agree with the author. One of the aspects that I subscribe to is in respect to the roots of the Order of Illuminati. As the author puts it across, Illuminati emerged as an organizational conspiratorial structure established by Weishaupt. This position has been reaffirmed by several other scholars, philosophers and commentators (Gardiner, 167).

Even though it may not be said with highest degree of precision the concise chronological development of Illuminati, it suffices to attribute it to the conspiratorial movements evident during the eighteenth century. The writings of Adam Weishaupt were critical in designing appropriate instructions to oversee the management of the Order of Illuminati (Gardiner, 167). Thus, while one may loosely assert that Weishaupt might not have been the first developer of the conspiratorial, he was, however, very instrumental in its formation, growth and spread.

Conclusion

The study sought to determine the root origins of the conspiratorial of Illuminati. This is against the backdrop that Illuminati is one of the most vexed orders to understand in the present day. Thus, as highlighted in the preceding paragraphs, many people do not really understand the development, nature and spread of Illuminati. Nonetheless, the critical review has pointed out that Illuminati is a conspiratorial concept that emerged in the eighteenth century. The underlying rationale behind its formulation was the desire to challenge the existing orders by replacing them and exercising authority over the world.

Works Cited

Gardiner, Philip. Secret Societies: Gardiner’s Forbidden Knowledge: Revelations about the Freemasons, Templars, Illuminati, Nazis, and the Serpent Cults. Red Wheel/Weiser, 2007.

McIlhany, William H. “A Primer on the Illuminati.” New American 25 (2009): 31-36.

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The concepts of race, gender, and class are used to give identities to people within the society. Identities in terms of race, gender and class are highly regarded by people in the society who consider them as significant factors that describe a person’s history. Thus; over the years, the idea of transformation almost been regarded as a taboo since the society has made people to believed that transformation causes damage to history. However, Kai & Marquis argue that these identities are merely scripts, and the evidence that supports the scripts are within the people carry them (Kai & Marquis, 2017). By this argument, the authors mean that people themselves know their own identities despite what the society claims for them. The authors support their argument by stating that if we fear losing ourselves without these identities, we shall be trapped into identities that we know fail us (Kai & Marquis, 2017).

Categorization of humans based on their race is made depending on their physicals, behavioral and more so cultural attributes which may signify that they share the same origin (Swinehart, 2018). Especially in the current society, race can also be defined as a group of people who share certain traits like skin color, hair texture, and other physical features. Race stems from the idea that there are groups of humans in the world and all have specific physical features or cultural ways which distinguish them from another group. For example, people may identify their races as aboriginals, African-American or black, Asian, Pacific Islander, Native Americans, and Hawaiian. Individuals may identify themselves with one or more social identities which also define their race. For example, individuals of African, Asian American, Native American or Hawaiian ethnicity may identify themselves as African-Americans. In reality, race is thought by many to be a social construct. A social construction is a term used to define any concept which has only been created by society at large. In this definition, race is not a natural phenomenon that can be found in other non-human species. Race has its roots in human history which are very ancient in terms of evolution since they date early pre-historic times of humankind; thus, making it to be a strong identity for people.

Class is defined as a social division whereby people are categorized according to their social or economic status (Swinehart, 2018). The social classes are a hierarchy, and each class has its own customs, values, beliefs, and habits. Individuals that belong in the higher classes within the hierarchy enjoy more privileges than those that belong in lower classes; where by, the rights and freedoms of those in higher classes are prioritized and observed more than those of lower classes. On the other side, punishments are severe for those that come from lower classes especially when they offend people from a higher class. For instance, Kai & Marquis, (2017) reflect on an episode of law-and-order SVU in which a black boy, from a black school confronted a white transgender teenage girl from another school. The white girl sustained a fall over a bride when she was pushed, she survived the initial fall, but later died because of complications related with the fall. Over the course of episode, the boy was constantly reminded that he had not just hurt anyone, but someone from a “protected class.” As a punishment for the offense, the black boy suffered serious consequences by being jailed for 3 years in juvenile and 4 more years in the adult prison upon his 18th birthday (Kai & Marquis, 2017).

Gender is a classification of sex in terms of the social and cultural roles played by men and women. It is one’s status as a man or woman, boy or girl. This also includes anatomy such as chromosomes, hormone levels, muscle mass, fat distribution (Swinehart, 2018). The concept of gendered behavior will vary by culture but often happens during development stages such as childhood. In western societies gender typically refers to sexual identity while other cultures might use it for social roles and roles assigned by the society itself. The term gender identity, or simply “gender”, is a person’s personal identification with the sex that they were assigned at birth and sometimes defined as embodying certain personality traits or characteristics that are typical for people of the opposite gender.

References

Swinehart, K. (2018). Gender, class, race, and region in “bilingual” Bolivia. Signs and Society, 6(3), 607-621. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/699668Kai M. Green & Marquis Bey (2017) Where Black Feminist Thought and Trans* Feminism Meet: A Conversation, Souls, 19:4, 438-454, https://doi.org/10.1080/10999949.2018.1434365

The Concepts of Technology and Patent

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Introduction

Much of the techniques applied in the business world are engineered in an academic environment. An academic environment provides decisive solutions which answer problems of product orientation in a real market environment. A good example of this analysis is chapter five and chapter six of Hisrich et al (2010) 8th edition on entrepreneurship. This study will attempt to prove that Hisrich theoretical approach in relation to technology and patenting concepts is decisive to answer to challenges in a practical airline industry setup. The study is segmented into two main sections. Firstly, an analysis of the two concepts adopted from chapter five and chapter six. Secondly, the study will present a coherent discussion seconding the two concepts.

Technology Concept in Chapter Five

Hisrich (2010, p.133) assess the integral role of technology in empowering global organizations towards realization of decisive prudent managerial skills. For a global organization, the client-product-market driven strategy seems appealing since this approach seek to ensure that organization responds to direct demands of the client. Ideally, technology facilitates several thresholds of product development and product orientation. Research on the nature of the product is entirely client driven. Therefore, in contemplating about appliances it is integral to adopt Hisrich approach in relation to product development.

In business, integration of a business strategy and competence plan (in relation to technology) requests the consequential operations of the Research and Development department. Thus in enrolling technology, it is vital to request the RD department to investigate on the importance of ratings of any given technology. Also, Hisrich (2010, p. 132) examines the integral role of search engines in facilitating the company with much of the needed information. In fact in the later page, Hisrich covers the impetus role of business association in increasing productivity patterns. With time, technology proves a suitable platform to search for reliable business associates. Now the force behind business association is based on the knowledge that multiple layers of specialization have moved product orientation to-do-it-all approach to a to-do-best approach. For instance, in applying Hisrich approach in an aviation industry, it is good to note that technology will facilitate the determination of commercial inputs and consequently the nature of outputs.

As a result, scheduling technology innovation in the aviation industry will be subsequent towards realization of better policies. In Hisrich thoughts, an internal technology invention seems an appealing strategy. For example, the development of quality assessment software will be decisive in ensuring that quality standards are maintained at first class orientation. A good example of this system is an ERP system.

Patenting Concept in Chapter Six

Internal organization technical provisions may conflict with local or international legislative requirements. However, Hisrich (2010, p. 161-166), covers on the decisive role of understanding intellectual property rights and how this can be applied to safeguard a company against reprisal from national or international legislation systems. It is justifiable to apply this concept since the organization will be in a better position to pursue a number of technologically driven products. In aviation industry, products are increasing attracting patenting concerns. The underlying reason is because in the last one decade, there has been an influx in the number of potential players in the industry. While traditional players are attempting to present genuine products, newer players will often reformulate a product to make it appear original. This means that patents will impose on a substantial resource allocation in the incremental budgeting concern.

Further into this application, is the knowledge that the proposed software development strategy attracts vicious reprisal in relation to patents. Hisrich (2010, p. 166) covers algorithms that are considered in developing the nature of pure thoughts. In this light, patents should be considered a decisive mental process that seeks to move an organization from one step of innovation to the other. In particular, the software itself is a computer. Suh (2010, pp. 377) argues that a software- that is computer code, is not considered a statutory subject matter. Decisively, this means that codes are only patentable if proof of originality can be proved. Patentable software is one that seeks to respond to challenges which were not responded to by previous systems

Discussion

Much of Hisrich’s debate is centered on the various stages of turning a company into a global player. Thus, when it comes to product development it is inopportune that the country will have to comply with international standards. Technically, the airline company is a close replica of a company in a similar turf. However, there are various benefits that can be affiliated to Hisrich’s concepts. Firstly, if a company applies a technology strategy to empower innovation, the company will stand a better position to effectively manage its resources, projects and as well make critical levels in the development of a manufacturing process. Sari et al (2012, pp. 14-15) second this opinion in what the trio justifies as an increased access to valuable information in a corporate, clear global view. As a result of better and increased access to information, the company will be in a better position to manage its resources. Also, the prudent and tighter controls for financial compliance declaration are inversely facilitated at this point.

Again, a technology driven approach will be vital in expanding the sales pool enabling the firm to achieve considerate microeconomic goals. Primarily, research is oriented towards the development of products which are cost effective but respond to direct needs of the society. In this light, seconding Hisrch approach is integral in orienting the company to a greater financial stability level. Lastly, a technology based approach will be instrumental in ensuring that the firm is in a greater position to restructure internal organizational policies; for instance, procurement policy which amount to customer demands.

Conversely, it is good to consider the aggregate protection of corporate products in the wider commitment towards the creation of a competitive approach. Putnam (2004) reflects on the contractual benefits of patenting as applied in a business organization. Top of the list is the prevention against theft of the invention. Ideally, applying Hisrch approach is technically fronted towards establishing a reliable licensing/ inverse investing stratagem. In fact, the licensed product will add value to the list of the company assets thus improving the value of the company. Secondly, the licensed product will boost competition since the product improves the overall niche of product development and as well improving on the quality of products development. Thirdly, increased usage of innovative products will conversely encourage the building of higher profits margins. Indeed, the ability to seclude other competitors will enable the company to leap higher prospects in relation to profits (Andergassen 2010, pp. 202)

Conclusion

Ideally, implementing a business strategy is inspired by the academia-driven technical strategy. Academics present visionary analysis on what happens in a practical market. Technically, this approach is designed to ensure that decisive measures and scope are designed to inspire a learner on the fundamentality of observing a theoretically based approach for the enrollment a coherent industrial setup. However, distancing from theories, this study has assessed chapter five and chapter six of Hisrich et al (2010) 8th edition on entrepreneurship. The study picked two integral concepts courtesy of technological concept and the patenting concept, and as a result, the study has assessed their imperativeness in a real business environment.

References

Andergassen, R. (2010). Product market competition, incentives and fraudulent behavior.

Economics Letters, 107(2), 201-204.

Hisrich, R. D., Peters, M. A., & Shepherd, D. A. (2010). Entrepreneurship (8th

ed.). Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, p. 205.

Putnam, J. D. (2004). Costs and Benefits of Genomics Patents. American Journal ofPharmacoGenomics, 4(5), 277-292.

Sari, N., Hidayanto, A., & Handayani, P. (2012). Toward Catalog of Enterprise ResourcePlanning (ERP) Implementation Benefits for Measuring ERP Success. The Journal ofHuman Resources Management Research, 4, 1-16.

Suh, D., & Hwang, J. (2010). An Analysis Of The Effect Of Software Intellectual PropertyRights On The Performance Of Software Firms In South Korea. Technovation, 30(5-6),376-385.

The Concert of Europe and International Relations

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University

The Concert of Europe and International Relations

International Relations is a study area that looks into how countries relate, and the roles played by the sovereign states, the International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs), the Inter-Governmental Organizations (IGOs), the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and the Multinational Corporations (MNCs) (Hendrik, 2009). It is both a public policy and academic field (Hendrik, 2009).

The Concert of Europe may also be referred to as the Vienna International Relation System or the Congress System. The name derives from the fact that is because it was the outcome of the Congress of Vienna. It is used to refer to the power balance in Europe from the years of the Napoleonic wars (1815 notably) to the start of the First World War in 1914 (Jarrett, 2013). It was a system of the international order that revolved around four leading powers in Europe at the time, i.e. Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia. It was meant to stabilize Europe in the aftermath of the French Revolution and to prevent similar revolutions from taking place in the future. Thus, it was meant to check France’s influence in the region.

It took place in the age of Metternich, named after the then Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, who was famed for his conservatism. It was also because Austria was a very dominant power within the German Confederation. The age might also be referred to as the European Restoration, especially because the congress of Vienna sought to restore Europe to its state before the French revolution (Jarrett, 2013).

Goals of the concert of Europe

The major goal of the concert of Europe was to phase out all the outstanding territorial and political issues after the defeat of Napoleon and his ensuing exile. It was to ensure that Napoleon never rose again. The Concert of Europe also sought to avert future international problems and ensure that such problems, whenever they arose, would be solved through diplomacy and negotiation rather than war. It was meant to satisfy the interests of Austria, Prussia, Britain and Russia (Jarrett, 2013).

Features of the concert of Europe

The Vienna System was more of an informal arrangement, with no formally laid down rules or permanent institutions. Instead, whenever a member had a crisis, it would propose a conference of the member countries. The meetings of the Concert of Europe took place in 1818 (Aix-la-Chapelle), 1819 (Carlsbad), 1820 (Troppau), 1821 (Laibach), 1822 (Verona), 1832 (London) and 1878 (Berlin) (Jarrett, 72). The congress of 1818 (Aix-la-Chapelle) was designed to resolve French Allied Occupation, which helped to restore France to a status equal to that of Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia. The congress of 1822 (Verona) was convened to decide if France could be allowed to intervene in restoration of Ferdinand VII of Spain (Jarrett, 2013).

Strengths of the Congress of Vienna

It led to a sustainable peace in Europe that lasted about a century from 1815 when the Napoleonic wars ended and 1914 when the First World War broke out. A century of peace was a remarkable achievement given after its collapse, World War I broke out. Barely 25 years later, there was an even deadlier World War II and, thereafter, there were decades of Cold War between the US and the USSR (Jarrett, 2013).

Weaknesses of the Congress of Vienna

The congress of Vienna had a number of weaknesses that led to its imminent collapse after nearly a century of existence. Its effectiveness faded due to a number of issues such as the Unification of Germany, the rise of Nationalism in Europe, the Eastern Question and the Risorgimento in Italy. When the European nationalistic ideals began to mount up, Ferdinand VII of Spain realized that the power balance among the European nations was spiked up (Jarrett, 2013).

Conclusion

IR lessons drawn from the Concert of Europe

International Relations thinkers learn certain crucial lessons from the concert of Europe. The most vital lesson learned from the concert of Europe if the fact that international peace is an outcome of collaborative efforts among all the countries involved. Efforts at international peace can only succeed when every other country of the world came out to oppose and condemn acts of aggression by any one country (Hendrik, 2009).

References

Hendrik, S. (2009). Global Horizons: An Introduction to International Relations. New York: University of Toronto press, 5-93.

Jarrett, M. (2013). The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon. London: I. B. Tauris & Company, 1-522.

The Conciliar Controversy

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Institutional Affiliation:

The Conciliar movement that can be seen as a threat or challenge to the authority of the medieval papacy. The pope in the Catholic Church is viewed as having very high authority. He is the representative of the Apostle Peter whom Jesus Christ commanded to feed his sheep. The pope, therefore, has been given a mandate, not only from earthly beings but also from God himself. The pope ruled with absolute authority over the members of the Catholic Church until the Conciliar Movement came about and challenged the power of the pope.

The Conciliar movement sought to come up with a church in which all members, even the pope himself would be answerable to the General Council. The council thought that absolute powers that the pope held did not bode well for the church. No one was able to keep the pope accountable for his actions as he was the successor of the Apostle Peter on earth. Peter was ordained by Jesus Christ himself hence the pope’s role was God-given.

The Conciliar movement felt that this state o affairs concerning papal supremacy should be changed. A better solution was to come up with a general council that would oversee the church as a whole. The members of the council would assemble under the authority of the Holy Spirit. The Council would come up with new reforms and policies that would be followed by all the people, including the pope. A failure to adhere to the laws that were laid down by the council was a direct violation of the laws of Jesus Christ who had ordained the council. Wrongdoers therefore had to be punished fittingly even if it was the pope himself. There was much reform that needed to be carried out in the church, and this would be undertaken by the Holy Synod or by another general council that had been constituted legally.

A pope might have reasons to fear the decisions of a general council. The Pope has considered the highest authority in the Catholic Church; hence a word from him was like a word for Jesus Christ himself. The pope had the tasks of leading the Catholic faithful as well as those serving in the Church. This granted the pope autonomy to do whatever he wanted. It was, therefore, challenging to tell whether the pope was acting for his good or for the good of the whole church in general. The pope was like a king over the Catholic Church just as a king rules a country. He had to fight for his power, fight the Churches’ enemies and also to act in a manner that undermined the desires of their enemies.

The General Council would step in and be the overall authority of the Church; the council would ensure that all wrongdoing in the Church was punished. This included any acts of wrongdoing by the pope himself. The Council was legally constituted, and hence no one could challenge its authority. When the pope did something wrong, he would be punished. The problem with a general council, however, is that they might engage in a witch-hunt for the pope. This was highly likely especially if the pope wanted some reforms in the Catholic Church that members of the council do not agree with. They might come up with accusations to taint the Pope’s image and get him out the office is held. While many Catholics worked to advance their faith and their church, the few who had a different agenda would be given a platform.

Rebellion in the church would also be curbed under the leadership of the council. May wrongdoers in the church were unhappy with the council. They appealed through the pope to future council members. The council, however, disagreed strongly with the appeal. They said that there was no legal or theological that could be brought against the council. The laws that they made had been formed after the consultation with people trained in matters of civil law and canons.

The regular meeting of the general church council was essential for the growth of the church. It was an opportunity to identify any actions of church members and how to condemn such actions. The general council would also get the chance to root out any evils that existed in the Church; the meetings were a chance for the council to consult each other and to discuss the necessary reforms in the church. Some of the issues in the Catholic Church included the fact that the poor members of the church were facing oppression and there was no one to fight for their rights. Meeting s of the council provided the chance to discuss possible remedies to this situation. The powerful people had to be punished, and only the General Council would have the authority to do that in a fitting and adequate manner.

It was also the time to strengthen their faith in God and even to get more members in the church. The meeting s was an opportunity to encourage fruitfulness in the church. If the general council were neglected, it would encourage the growth of evil in the church which would have been curbed early with enough guidance. Continuity of the council would be assured with the meetings set on a regular basis of ten years forever. The council was also tasked with bringing reforms, mandates and other regulations to the church. The meetings would ensure uniformity in the church in all the different parts of the world.

Sinfulness had been allowed in the church for far too long, and wrongdoers were left to go scot-free without any punishment meted out on them. Rebellion had been encouraged and licensed, and the members of the church had gone astray. The hierarchy and discipline in the church had been ignored for too long, and the council would get the chance to remedy this.

The Conciliar movement would at a position to carry out much-needed reforms in the church. The Pope would still maintain his leadership role but would be guided and held accountable by the general council. The fact that the council commanded that there be no appeals against any of their decisions is a worrisome one. There should be democracy in the church to allow for aggrieved members to seek reprieve. The Council, however, made their intentions as to the reforms clear, they wanted to put a stop to the oppression of the poor, to punish wrongdoers, to make sure that the fields of the lord were kept fertile and to encourage members in a way that is right and pleasing to the Lord.

The conclusion of Novel Princess De Cleves as a Victory

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Institution

The conclusion of Novel Princess De Cleves as a Victory

The conclusion of the novel princess de cleves by Madame de lafayette has sparked many controversies since its publication, the story’s centralized around a 17th century setting is about two star crossed lovers tragedy when a princess is forced to marry Prince de Clèvesm a man she does not love and is more than twice her age, the twist is that she takes her position seriously and plays the part of as a wife till the end, even though she is secretly in love with Duc de Nemours and due to this they have to hide their love which would cause a controversy if revealed. In an overview it can be said that the story from her perspective princes de cleves emerges the victor since she efficiently managed to maintain her virtue and lived on as a married woman out of obligation, even though it lacked any sense of happiness and fulfillment till the end. It is in this regard that this article addresses the different aspect of the main characters sense of duty, belief and rational thinking that help support the above claim.

Throughout the story the main character has been victorious even when tempted as depicted by her desire to remain virtuous through her beliefs, to not give in to her infidelity even though she was tempted. The fact that she revealed the truth to her husband that she was attracted to another man and went ahead to find ways of overcoming the infidelity desire and not letting it control her is one aspect that reflects well on her personal beliefs, which forbid infidelity. Even though she was still attracted to Monsieur de Nemours she still had a sense of duty to remain loyal to her husband even after death and this eventually forced her to enter a convent as a way of preventing any infidelity this environment of self-imposed purgatory forces her to be virtuous and is another achievement on her part since she managed to overcome the temptation of cheating. The belief theme in the story helps demonstrate the princess situation when she chose the option of entering the convent in that she believed that the right choices should not lead to unhappiness and in this aspect even though it made her virtually unhappy she made the difficult choice which was the right one and this is a victory for her since she managed to uphold her obligation as a married woman till the end.

The princess De Cleves advanced form of Cartesian thinking which she effectively applied to her everyday actions helped her reason her way out of difficult situations, and through its application she managed to work through her emotions while not leaving room for them to control her actions unlike other characters in the book, and this controlled sense of emotion and actions helped her not act rash since, she was aware how society harshly views the nobility’s actions and as such had to maintain perfect control even though she had problems and this acts in itself is as a central theme demonstrated throughout the novel. An example of this is shown by Monsieur de Nemours when he stated that, At least, Sire, if I embark on such an extravagant adventure on your Majesty’s advice and in you service, I beg you to keep it secret until success justifies my ambition in the public eye (9) which shows how he was more worried more about the public and aristocrats opinions of him as compared to his view or even his proposed wife’s opinions. These rush actions made Nemours by the end of the novel become one of the least rush characters as shown by his emotions overtaking his senses as he openly confessed his feelings for de cleves.

The self- centered actions of the various characters in the Princesse De Cleves only help magnify her victorious aspect since they magnify the honorable and virtuous aspects of the character in the literature by stressing on the fact that she is the only character that demonstrates any rational thinking in the story. Princess de cleves in the entire story demonstrated that before she takes any action she thinks things through, and as a result she was regarded with honor in the society, which is the highest possible reward. She also demonstrated this by the aspect that she used rational thinking to justify and review on how she unfairly reacted and treated her husband. This is seen when she asked herself why she had done something so perilous, and she concluded that she had embarked on it almost without thinking. The singular nature of such a confession, for which she could find no parallel, brought home to her all the risks it entailed. (98).

Her honorable virtues are depicted by the fact that even though she had the infidelity issue in the background and the hard choices she had to make about her happiness and future she still took the time to rationally question her actions and finally chose something that did not favor her happiness but helped uphold her status and pride in the society as seen when she finally ended up in a convent, this means that she chose to stay alone as shown in the last line of the novel that states her life, which was quite short, left inimitable examples of virtue;(156).Even the author applauds the fact that de cleve strong character helped her effectively manage and control her emotions and remain virtuous till the end through rational thinking which compared to the other characters in the same surrounding was a remarkable achievement through this analysis and thinking it is clear that the escape from the infidelity maintains the victorious aspect of the main character.

The 17th century much admired concept of good and family upbringing is effectively demonstrated by the fact that the main character chose the path of solitude over engaging in infidelity and she accredits this to her personal beliefs, this gradually influences the reader’s previous view of the main character as she demonstrates her maturity through her sound judgments and composure, however not much emphasis should be placed on the Christian morality since her decisions and later actions are not based on her religion or Christian conscience telling her it is a sin to engage in infidelity but mostly on the aspect that her reasoning warned her on what the possible repercussions of her actions would be which was most likely the loss of her self-respect, and honor in the society.

In conclusion the La Princesse de Cleves novel can be said to be more of a victory since it has helped demonstrate the different aspects and hard decisions the main character had to deal with to uphold her honor and beliefs in their society. The fact that even though she ended up lonely she made the right decisions eventually and that is a positive aspect on her part. In addition the novel reflects the often ignored struggle between duty and love in many fundamentally good people in today’s society, and in addition this novels highlighted aspect makes the literature remain relevant even today when many females are at the mercy of the increased immoral male characters.

Reference

Madame de Lafayette (1925) The Princesse de Cleves. Cambridge University, Press

The conditions and treatment of Africans and their descendants in colonial Virginia between 1629 and 1705

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Introduction

Between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the legal opportunities for Africans in Virginia changed, making their lives more difficult. These laws were intended to dehumanize slaves and portray them as inferior to whites. The practice of keeping black servants for life began the legal process of converting people who had both rights and duties into people’s property. Africans brought to Virginia in the early 1600s were not all imprisoned indefinitely. Slavery in Virginia dates back to 1619, when the Virginia Company was established solely for the purpose of transporting indentured servants to work for the British settlers (Beverley, 72). In exchange for the number of indentured servants it brought, the company was given land. The vast majority of these indentured servants were Africans who had been sold into slavery in their own countries. Africans were forced to board the slave ship White Lion, which transported them to Virginia. Twenty Angolans were kidnapped and forced to travel to Virginia by the British Crew. Before being released into the free world, indentured servants worked for a set period of time. Indentured servants, on the other hand, were only allowed to work for a total of 20 years. Slaves indentured servantship differed from outright slavery in that they were forced to work indefinitely and were completely reliant on their master.

Indentured servants of Christian parentage were granted a pardon under Act I of the laws concerning servants and slaves. If they were over the age of nineteen, such servants would be indentured for five years. The minimum term of service for those under the age of nineteen was set at five years. as well, but they had to be Christians. Act II of this law mandated that indentured servants be brought before the courts within six months to determine their true age. It would be possible to set the age at which their indenture would end by determining their age. They were, however, expected to be Christians or to have Christian ancestors.

Virginia passed laws in 1661 allowing anyone who was free to own slaves. When the laws referred to "free people," they were referring to white men (Parent 106). Additional slavery-related laws were enacted in the seventeenth century, and they were codified in the Virginia slave code of 1705. (An Act Concerning Slaves, Chap XLIX, p. 447.) According to one of the slave laws passed in 1662, children born to slave mothers would become slaves when they reached the age of majority, regardless of who fathered them (Parent 107). The goal of this law was to keep as many slaves working for whites as possible. Furthermore, the law sought to discourage relationships between free and slave people. This meant that the children of female slaves could not be freed simply because they were conceived by white men who were not slaves.

A law was passed in 1662 that stated that baptism would not free one from slavery. Even if the slaves were Christians, the law stated that baptism would not be enough to free them (ACT III). There was concern that by making baptism the basis for emancipation, Virginia would run out of slaves who could have provided free and cheap labor. Enslavers were guaranteed by the law that baptism would not revoke their right to keep their slaves in servitude. Slaves brought to work on white farmers’ farms were not included, even when Christians taught that all people were equal before God. The vast majority of slaves originated in North Africa, where Islam was the predominant religion. Because Christians made up the majority of the population in America, those who converted to Christianity were expected to live free lives. This law, however, made it impossible for Christian slaves to gain their freedom.

According to the Report of a Committee from an Assembly Concerning the Freedom of Elizabeth Key, she was set free because she was fathered by a white man (1656). The committee was a special task force formed to address issues that arose as a result of white men seeking sexual favors from black women while knowing their children would be sold as slaves. The white men reasoned that enslaving their children would absolve them of responsibility for their actions. That is why, after a while, there was a feeling that the law should be changed so that innocent children born as a result of such cohabitation would not suffer needlessly. As a result, a child’s paternity began to play a role in determining whether or not a slave would continue to serve.

This incident happened before the 17th century, and it was the beginning of a series of harsh and oppressive legal actions that lasted from the 17th to the 18th centuries. Legal rulings and legislative actions explicitly stated that Blacks were inferior by the mid-seventeenth century. When Re Sweat, for example, slept with a Negro, the court sentenced him to public penance. This procedure demonstrates how the court system regarded blacks as inferior people unworthy of association with whites at the time. According to the legal ruling, Sweat defiled his body by sleeping with a lesser human.

A slave law was enacted in the 17th century, but it only represented one aspect of these traditions. Nonetheless, it includes equality, court ecclesiasticism, and another ceremonial law intended to govern other areas of England, such as the edge of England. Prior to the 17th century, Virginia’s legal system alternated between recognizing and condemning blacks.

Early Virginia laws were intended to close escape routes, denying freedom to already enslaved blacks. Due to the most compelling cultural and economic circumstances, this law was enacted in an unrestricted legal authority environment. There were no laws requiring Africans to be slaves at the time; instead, court cases were followed by a slew of legislation designed solely to make Africans slaves.

In the 17th century, Elizabeth presented a case in court that advanced the case of parentage impacts on slaves, as she was presented to the court for becoming pregnant for a black person. The case was heard by the Virginia legislature. This case occurred at a time when the race debate was at its peak. Following the case, Virginia adopted English and Spanish customs, allowing a free person to baptize Africans.

In 17th century Virginia, disagreements with masters could be brought before a court for resolution. A slave owner who wanted to break the most rebellious slaves could do so now, knowing that any punishment he received, including death, would be without repercussions.

Because Africans were now considered Christians, it was easier for them to interact with whites, which was especially important for blacks, who saw Christianity as a vital status.

This privilege also allowed African Christians who came to Virginia to be treated better than others. Other Africans, particularly those who converted to Christianity upon arrival, benefited from the privilege as well.

Unlike in the past, black Christians are now allowed to bring suits and even testify in court, allowing them to enjoy their freedom. Africans’ acceptance of Christianity and baptism, a symbol of whites in Virginia, enabled them to become civilized and rational. The use of this opportunity to convert by Africans resulted in a greater degree of personal freedom.

Conclusion

Many cases were heard in court, and if the black was Christian, he or she was granted freedom because they were not considered slaves and thus worked in the same way as other African servants. Slaveholders were encouraged to convert their slaves after learning about the status of Christianity among Africans, so that they would no longer risk losing property. In the first half of the 17th century, Africans were treated as free Christian servants. Those Africans who did not seize the opportunity to convert were doomed to remain slaves for the rest of their lives, as the customs accepted it. The slave law had been accepted and recognized by the law at the ending of the 1700s. The legal laws developed as a result of whites’ early decision to treat Africans as property, which was based on English racial precedents. As a result, the great opportunity of Christianity as a status for Africans greatly aided them in gaining their freedom because, unlike in the 16th century, they could not go to court and sue another person.

REFERENCES

Parent, Anthony S. Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave Society in Virginia, 1660-1740. UNC Press Books, 2003.

Coyle, Betty Wade Wyatt. "The treatment of servants and slaves in colonial Virginia." (1974).

Hook, Francis Moore. "The Negro in Colonial Virginia 1619-1765." (1952).

Stanard, William Glover. "Major Robert Beverley and His Descendants." The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2, no. 4 (1895): 405-413.

Parent, Anthony S. Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave Society in Virginia, 1660-1740. UNC Press Books, 2003.

Shih, Shannon. "The Rise of White Supremacy in 17th-Century Colonial America."