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Political Philosophy Midterm Passage ID
Quote 1
“The final sentence, it is probable, which pronounces characters and actions amiable or odious, praise-worthy or blamable; that which stamps on them the mark of honor or infamy, approbation or censure; that which renders morality an active principle, and constitutes virtue our happiness, and vice our misery: It is probable, I say, that this final sentence depends on some internal sense or feeling, which nature has made universal in the whole species.” Hume, pg. 15
This quote is found in the readings of the second Inquiry that were presented by Hume and it is situated almost at the end of the text. It comes after a clear analysis of the vital concepts as they relate to ethics and the role of humanity in upholding the same. It implies that virtues pay a critical role in enhancing co existence amongst humanity. The author in this regard places great emphasis on the same and contends that if one upholds virtues, s/he is likely to be rewarded in various ways.
On the contrary vices in most instances tend to attract punishment. He ascertains that virtues have intrinsic goodness, in that they are good in themselves. As such, they are worth pursuing, irrespective of the reward that they attract. In particular, they enhance personal satisfaction by influencing various facets of a person’s emotional wellbeing or/and sense of touch and taste. In other words, virtues reward ones internal feelings that can not be satisfied by anything else. Most importantly, they determine a person’s ethical wellbeing and arguably, they can be considered to be at the core of morality. Thus without these virtues a person is considered to be immoral and vice versa. Furthermore, the virtues and vices are a representation of morality and evil respectively.
The quote also shows that there is a distinction between reason and taste and each of these play different roles. Reason in this regard helps in discernment of what is true or false and as such, it is critical in enhancement of knowledge. Taste on the other hand presents the feelings of deformity and beauty that are represented by vice and virtue. Reason is important because it directs ones feelings and emotions in to ways that would enhance happiness rather than misery. It highly depends on the impulses that are derived from the person’s appetite. Since taste determines a person’s pain or pleasure, it comprises of misery or happiness and therefore it guides the motives of individuals.
Finally, it implies that the decision or choice to pursue either good or evil is largely personal. Every species is accorded the capacity and responsibility to make decisions regarding whatever it wants to pursue. As such, the respective feelings are sourced from a person’s internal wellbeing. With respect to the entire text, the quote is important because it provides a succinct conclusion of the prepositions of Hume with regards to reason nature and morality. In addition, it provides a clear relationship between these and how they impact on the moral wellbeing or humanity.
Quote 2:
“Now I would very much like someone to explain to me what kind of misery can there be for a free being whose heart is at peace and whose body is in good health?” Rousseau, pg. 52.
Notably, the author was responding to previous assertions that had indicated that the state of humanity is in itself miserable. These were specifically by Hobbes who argued that irrespective of his social or economic wellbeing, man in most instances tends to struggle with various social economic, environmental and cultural issues tat undermine his holistic welfare. More often than not the author pointed out that most individuals are not satisfied with their lives. As such, they tend to keep complaining about their lives especially when they face challenging experiences. They put their entire blame on the divine law for failing to make timely interventions to rescue them accordingly. This explains why a significant percentage of them commit suicide. Their primary goal is usually to escape the overwhelming changes that they face in their daily lives. The author fails to understand the side of life that presents more misery, whether in death or when one is alive.
The author implied that individuals who are usually at peace both in the physical, mental and psychological being tend to function better that their counterparts who face various challenges in their lives. Psychological problems usually undermine the wellbeing of humanity and have a direct effect on their functioning. However, life presents its miseries in various ways. To begin with, it is indicated that individuals that have immense knowledge and are tormented by the same tend to undergo significant misery. In addition, the author ascertains that comparing oneself with others or putting ones state in another person’s can be equally tormenting. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that these miseries are initiated by oneself during the thinking process and measures can be undertaken to avoid them altogether. However, it is contended that when an individual is in perfect health with regards to physical and mental health, s/he does not have to experience any form of misery; be it physical of psychological in nature.
This is because nature provides sufficient resources for livelihood. The only effort s/he has to take is to work hard and use the resources to earn a living. This can be attained in a sustainable manner when s/he uses reason too. Reason in this regard enables the same to apply knowledge and critical skills in application of knowledge and techniques learnt during work. A combination of both intellectual and physical energy would yield optimal results. This text is important and seemingly, it makes vital contributions to the entire text. To begin with, it acts as a pacesetter and enables the author to develop credible arguments regarding the topic under review. In addition, it evokes critical thinking in the reader and enhances attention of the reader to the entire text. Most importantly, it draws from the thoughts and suggestions of other philosophers and can therefore be considered to be objective in nature.
Quote 3:
“There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will.” Rousseau, pg. 155
This quote is drawn from the writings of Rousseau when he was discussing about the concept of the genera will and how it relates to the wellbeing of the society. In particular, he was addressing the issue of sovereignty and how the same was related to human wellbeing. He indicated that the notion of the general will shared an intricate relationship with the issue of sovereignty. At this point in time, he ascertained that the sovereignty in this regard should be used to benefit the entire public rather than individuals. In this consideration therefore, he argued that the general will reflects the public’s will and therefore presents its interests. In addition, he contended that the general rule is abstract in nature and it mode of addressing issues is not particularistic in nature. Hence when employed as a representation of the perceptions of the public, it tends to present the ideas as a block, rather than as parts of the whole. It is in this regard that he argues that there is dire need to outline the differences between the general will and the will of all. He goes ahead to ascertain that the general will places emphasis on the interest of all individuals within the society while the rule of all basically analyzes a coition of private or individual wills.
By ascertaining highlighting that there are different types of wills in the society, this quote is instrumental in enlightening the public of their responsibility. It challenges the individuals in power to address the specific needs of the society and further the wellbeing of the same accordingly. In particular, these need to place considerable emphasis on the general will because of the fact that it captures various concerns in the society and designs the same to reflect the common interests of the population. This is instrumental in enhancing the welfare of the entire society by ensuring that their various concerns are addressed accordingly. This also contributes to increased productivity within the society as all segments of the same are empowered accordingly. In addition, it informs that citizens to exercise a great degree of caution during decision making. Specifically, they are challenged to be informed about the decision making structures within the society and how the various decision making processes impact on the welfare. Knowledge of this would be fundamental in enabling them to ensure that their views and concerns are mainstreamed within the various policies during the formulation of the same. This is because it would enable the m to participate actively in the same by making credible contributions.
With regard to the text, the quote is vital as it has been employed in underscoring the importance of acquainting oneself with vital information regarding the relationship between the public, private will and the relationship that exists within the same. The author uses the same as a concluding remark when analyzing this important area of study.
Quote 4
“Morality consists, then, in the reference of all action to the lawgiving by which alone a kingdom of ends is possible.” Kant, pg. 42
The quote is found in Kant’s Groundwork and it seeks to ascertain the roe of an individual in creating a moral society. The author argues that individual behavior needs to be checked and modulated to ensure that it reflects similar ideals with that of other individuals within the society. Besides being uniform, these ideals need to be ethical and rational in nature. In addition, they need to have a similar impact on individuals in the society. In other words, they should not be discriminatory.
This quote means that for one to be considered to be moral, s/he needs to align his or her behaviors to the provisions of the law. This can be attained if one takes time to examine his or her nature or personality, understands the related personal weaknesses that undermine his or her moral functioning and devises viable ways through which the same can mend his ways accordingly. Alignment of one’s behavior to universal provisions is imperative in enhancing harmonic living and it goes a long way in avoiding social conflicts and deviant behavior. Notably, all individuals within the society are charged with the responsibility of reviewing their code of conduct. The universal laws in this regard also need to be in line with the expectations of the individuals that it governs.
In order to enhance sustainability, subjective aspects of individuals should also be mainstreamed in the particular law. This is because the individual in this context are considered to be subjective ends. This implies that they have an intrinsic goodness that enhances their morality. They are also dutiful and assume responsibilities that are harmonious to the entire society. Furthermore, they share a moral world that is equally characterized by inherent goodness and therefore a ‘kingdom of ends’. Thus in order to attain this condition, respective individuals should adopt good dispositions.
These should be objective in nature and should not be influenced in any way by personal inclinations, impulses or feelings. Rather, they should be based on rational and informed thought. Without the assumption of this ideal disposition, it would become difficult to create an ideal kingdom of ends that is seemingly comprised of moral individuals. This is because the personal ideas would be conflicting and unlikely to be in line with the provisions of the fundamental universal laws. Good dispositions are therefore imperative because they compel an individual to assume universal acceptable characteristics. Further, this quote implies that an individual can as well be the only member of the Kingdom of ends in so far as the same exercises the fundamental ideals.
The quote is important in reference to the text because of the fact that it provides a precise summary of the role of moral individuals in creating a moral society and vice versa. In particular, it summarizes the various comprehensive explanations regarding the ideal nature of the world, universal laws, and individuals and how these interplay to culminate in a kingdom of ends.
Quote 5:
“A spirit of innovation is generally the result of a selfish temper and confined views. People will not look forward to posterity, who never look backward to their ancestors.” Burke, pg. 33
This is drawn from Burke’s reflections on the people of France. In this, he specifically refers to the constitution and acclaims the fore fathers that were responsible for its formulation. He indicates that they performed the noble task without any reservations and included policies and laws that were beneficial to all segments of the populations. Thus the rights provided therein are sought to protect the welfare of each and every individual in the country. Particularly, he cites the Margan Charta whose provisions enhanced liberty and freedom for the entire nation. However, he laments that the current situation is not reflective of these fundamental efforts as the present constitution is compounded by various controversies. According to him, the conventional constitution was inheritable and it gave the English people a chance to enjoy liberty as well as freedom.
More over, it appreciated diversity and respected each and every segment of the population. Most importantly, it provided the current population with an opportunity to inherit property and franchises. He contends that this policy was based upon a firm foundation of wisdom and refection. It is at this juncture that he reprimands the current attitude and posits that it is devoid of critical values of selflessness. Further, he contends that conservation is a vital aspect that is passed on through inheritance.
The quote implicates innovation and affirms that it has contributed to a spirit of selfishness that is manifested through unhealthy competition and lack of regard for the neighbors as well as the past populations. Notably, this is exhibited at different levels and just as individuals; nations are increasingly struggling to secure various resources at the expense of others. This has been further compounded by the burgeoning population that places unprecedented pressure on the available resources. Unfair and unhealthy competition that is characterized by exploitation has been made possible through the alteration of the constitution that was formulated years back. This also means that this selfish attitude that is characterized by increased self centeredness is unlikely to yield any positive outcomes.
The background of a person in this respect is equally influential in determining the future of the same. As such, Burke posits that the current populations need to respect their past in order for them to prosper. This is because their ancestors played a leading roe in safeguarding the resources that they are using as their livelihoods. Moreover, these populations are also responsible for safeguarding the resources for future generations. Notably, increased innovation is compromising this as the depletion of the resources is prevalent. This ascertains that the current populations are not mindful of either the past, present or future. Implications of these are likely to be devastating. This quotation was vital in the text because it set the pace for a critical analysis of the disparities that are inherent in the current constitution and the implication of the same to humanity.
Quote 6:
“Believe me, Sir, those who attempt to level, never equalize. In all societies, consisting of various descriptions of citizens, some description must be uppermost. The levelers therefore only change and pervert the natural order of things; they load the edifice of society, by setting up in the air what the solidity of the structure requires to be on the ground.” Burke, pg. 49
This quote was still presented by Edmund Burk in his Reflections of France’s revolution. In this context, he points out that the current way of life is characterized by a high level of imitation and emulation. Furthermore, various individuals that are considered the lowly in the society are making significant efforts to be economically at par with the rich in the society. These efforts are also being supported by the government and other influential humanitarian bodies. This according to him has culminated in a state of social confusion and competition with all segments of the population struggling to reach the top of the social ladder. Notably, it can also be implicated for the inherent conflicts that stem from the characteristic aggression. At this point, he wonders what will happen if the servants want to be at par with their masters. It is in this regard that he indicates that is a destruction of natural social order. For instance, he cites that the carpenters and tailors in Paris should stop struggling to be to the same level as the rich economists.
This implied that individuals who made efforts to make the society equal or leveling it are only destructing its natural structure. For instance, this can be likened to turning a house up side down. In the physical world, such an idea is likely to yield detrimental effects and is basically illogical. Likewise, Burke contended that such efforts in the social domains are also devastating. Classic examples in this regard include over taxing the economically endowed individuals, welfare programs as well as affirmative action that seeks to accord women an equal position in the society as their male counterparts. Generally, he posits that all programs that are geared towards social equity have far reaching implications on the social cohesion as well as other facets of the society. These according to the author have the capacity to lead to social collapse.
At this point, the author contends that the natural order of things is the most ideal and therefore need to be upheld for proper functioning of the society. Besides having adverse effects on the social structure, leveling would possibly eliminate diversity that is fundamental for co existence. In this respect it should be acknowledged that equality would possibly contribute to ‘similar ways of doing things’ and this is likely to result in to loss of vital diversity. The quotation is important in this text because it accredits the numerous examples that Burke provides. It achieves this by likening this struggle to the disruption and destruction of social order that is imperative for survival. Notably, the implications of this are likely to have adverse effects on the holistic wellbeing of the society as it will disrupt its functions.
